MONARCHES OF ENGLAND

After the Romans left Britain in AD 407, the country was raided by Picts from Caledonia, Angles and Saxons from Germany and Jutes from Denmark. Within 200 years most of England was under Anglo-Saxon rule, divided into seven Kingdoms:- Kent (mostly Jutes), Essex, Sussex, Wessex (Saxons), East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria(Danes and Vikings). As a guide, Wessex consisted of Hants, Dorset, Devon, Somerset and Wiltshire. Mercia's boundaries varied a great deal but could be said to lie between the Thames and Humber. The capital of Wessex was Winchester and important towns in Mercia were Lichfield, Repton and Tamworth.

OFFA	?-796	King Offa of Mercia was a powerful king of this period and built the dyke along the English/Welsh border. Offa died in 796.
EGBERT	802-839	Christianity was practised in the seven Kingdoms. In 802 Egbert became King of Wessex, and he and his successors are known as Kings of England. Egbert was the son of Ealhmund, King of Kent. Although nominally King of England, really he was only accepted South of the Humber. He won a resounding victory over the Norsemen and Cornish at Hingston Down near Callington in Cornwall in 836 and also conquered Mercia in 829 but lost it again in 838. He paved the way for national political unification which was achieved by King Athelstan in the 10th century. Although Egbert was King, the remaining kingdoms retained sub-kings or Ealdormen. Egbert was born c770 and died in 839.
ETHELWULF	839-858	Ethelwulf was the son of King Egbert and had previously ruled Kent and adjoining minor kingdoms. He continued wars against the Danes and had a victory at the mouth of the ret in Somerset in 845 and again in 851 when he beat a force of 350 ships' companies who attacked Canterbury. Ethelwulf helped the Mercians against the Welsh and then married the Mercian king's daughter.He was a religious man and in 855 undertook a pilgrimage to Rome, leaving the country in charge of Ethelbald his eldest son. On his return, to avoid civil war, he allowed Ethelbald to retain Wessex while he ruled Kent and other ts of SE England. Events abroad during Ethelwulf's reign included the Treaty of Verdun in 843, which divided the Frankish Empire and laid the foundation for the states of France and Germany. In 844 Kenneth MacAlpine united Scotland. In the 850's the crossbow was used for the first time in France. Ethelwulf died on Thursday 13th January 858 and is buried at Winchester. At this time our island was known by it's old Greek name, Albion, by the rest of Europe. The name England was not used until two centuries later.
ETHELBALD & ETHELBERT	858	On Ethelwulf's death in 858, his son Ethelbald was already ruling Wessex. The remaining South East kingdoms passed to Ethelwulf's second son Ethelbert. Ethelbald married his father's widow. On Ethelbald's death in 860, the Wessex kingdom was re-united with Kent and the adjoining kingdoms under Ethelbert. Both Ethelbald and Ethelbert were buried at Sherborne. Elsewhere, in 861 the Vikings discovered Iceland and in the same year St.Swithin died. It is interesting that the Anglo-Saxon lords of the time were called Ealdormen (Elder-men) this title was later changed to the Norse name of Earl. The title of senior councillors - Aldermen - which was in use until recent times, is derived from the Anglo-Saxon Ealdormen.
ETHELRED	865	There is some dispute as to whether Ethelred acceded in 865 or 866. He was the son of Ethelwulf and succeeded his brother Ethelbert. Ethelred, together with his younger brother Alfred, bravely fought the Danish invaders. In 865 a large Danish army landed in East Anglia and in 866 they rounded up all the horses they could find for use as transport, and moved up to York. It is interesting to note that they always tried to camp near a river for easy reinforcement and ship transportation of their supplies. From York they pillaged the country, marching through Nottingham and Thetford to Reading, which they reached by 870. In 871 Ethelred and his brother Alfred defeated the Danes at Ashdown near Lambourne in Berkshire. Ethelred died on Monday 23rd April 871 from wounds received on the battlefield. Elsewhere, the oldest dated printed book can be traced to China in 868.
ALFRED the GREAT	871	Alfred, the brother of Ethelred, was born at Wantage. He helped his brother gain a great victory over the Danes at Ashdown in 871. Alfred organised the army and was the founder of the English Navy. By 877 the Danes had occupied London and reached Gloucester and Exeter, but they lost 120 supply ships in a fierce storm off Swanage. In 878 he was forced to hide in Somerset and it was there arose the legend of the burned cakes. He renewed the fight and won a famous victory at Edington in Wiltshire the same year. After, the Danes agreed that their king, Guthrum, should be baptised and Alfred was godfather. Afterwards Guthrum ruled Mercia but acknowledged Alfred as Overlord. The Mercian settlement developed over the next 100 years into the body known as Danelaw. Before that, in 879 at Fulham and also near Rochester in 884, other Norse armies landed. Alfred continued fighting until he was the acknowledged champion of the English against the Danes. Alfred was scholarly, a writer, law-maker, pious and also a valiant fighter. Additionally he had a good knowledge of geography. He was a most able administrator and also instituted educational programmes. He founded monasteries and gave a large t of his income to charities. His wife was Ealswith. Alfred died on the 26th October, some say in 901, others 900, but the more generally accepted year is 899. He was buried at Winchester.
EDWARD the ELDER	899	Edward was Alfred's son. Edward together with his sister Ethelfleda of Mercia, fought stoutly against the Danes. Ethelfleda built many forts notably at Chester,Hereford, Bridgenorth, Shrewsbury, Warwick, Gloucester and Tamworth. Known as The Lady of the Mercians, she died in 918 and Mercia was then united with Wessex. In 914, Edward secured the release of the Bishop of Llandaff (Cardiff) who had been captured by the Norsemen and following this, the princes of both North and South Wales pledged their perpetual allegiance to him. Edward doubled the size of the kingdom during his reign. It is now generally acknowledged that Edward died on the 7th July 924 but some historians give the date as 925. His death occurred at Farndon in Cheshire and he was buried at Winchester. Abroad, the African state of Ghana was at the peak of it's power. And, an event that was to affect England a century and a half later, the Viking Rollo (Rolf) was acknowledged as the Lord of Normandy in France.
ATHELSTAN	924	Athelstan was the son of Edward the Elder and a grandson of Alfred. He spent his youth in Mercia and was crowned at Kingston on the 4th Sept 925. He beat the Northumbrians and following the Battle of Brunanburh in 937, the kings of Scotland and Strathclyde swore allegiance to him. Athelstan was acknowledged by the Welsh princes and at a meeting at Hereford they agreed to pay taxes to him in the form of gold, silver, hawks, hounds and oxen. He founded the see of St Germans in Cornwall. Athelstan made laws, ticularly to control the widespread thieving that was then prevalent. Athelstan had a good physique and golden hair, he was compassionate, intelligent and christian-like and was the first English Monarch who effectively ruled the whole Kingdom. He died at Gloucester on Tuesday October 29th 939. During Athelstan's reign, Good King Wenceslas of Bohemia was murdered in 929.
EDMUND	939	Edmund was the brother of Athelstan and was only 18 years old on his accession. When Vikings from Ireland invaded, the Archbishop of Canterbury arranged a treaty between them and the English and this divided the country. Later Edmund defeated these Vikings and regained the lost territory. Edmund had allies in the Welsh princes and together they laid waste to Strathclyde. Edmund was warlike and an effective monarch. He was murdered at Pucklechurch, Gloucestershire, by robbers on Tuesday 26th May 946. An interesting story about Edmund concerns Dunstan, who in later years became Archbishop of Canterbury. Edmund and Dunstan were good companions but treacherous courtiers wrongly discredited Dunstan and he was so upset that he contemplated leaving the country he loved so much. Just afterwards, the year was 943, he and Edmund were out riding at Cheddar when Edmund's horse reared up and bolted towards the cliffs of the Gorge. When all seemed lost, the thought struck Edmund of the evil done to Dunstan by the courtiers. He struggled and managed to regain control of his horse and thus avoid the cliffs. He called Dunstan and straightway rode with him to Glastonbury and immediately appointed his good friend as Abbot there.
EDRED	946	The previous king, Edmund, had two sons but neither were old enough to succeed him at the time of his death. Instead the Kingdom passed to his brother Edred. In 947 Eric Bloodaxe came from Norway and led the resident Norsemen of Northumbria against Edred. Although first defeated, Eric returned to rule at York for two years. In 954 the Northumbrians expelled Eric, and Edred regained control of Northumbria after a final battle against Eric's forces at Stainemore near Edendale. Dunstan, the former Abbot of Glastonbury, was Edred's chief minister. Edred died at Frome after a long illness on Friday Friday 23 November 955. People of this age lived in simple huts made of wood and mud with a crude thatched roof. There would be a fire on the floor in the centre of the hut and smoke would escape through a hole in the roof. The peoples' animals would share this accommodation. Hygiene was at a minimum and drinking water was frequently foul hence disease was rife. Drinking horns and simple pottery were used by the poor while the better off had some glass-ware. Food was eaten directly from the hand, the only cutlery being a knife.
EDWY	955	Edmund, the previous king, had no children and upon his death the elder son, Edwy or Eadwig, of his brother Edmund was chosen as King. Edwy was only 15 years old at the time. In 956 Edwy exiled Dunstan, the previous king's chief minister. Edwy gave land to a number of monasteries including Bampton Church in Oxford and Southwell Minster, York. (A minster was the church of a monastery). Edwy married Elfgifu but this was annulled by order of Archbishop Odo of Canterbury because they were too closely related. Elfgifu was then put to death. Edwy died on Saturday 1st October 959.
EDGAR	959	Edgar was the younger brother of Edwy the previous king. Dunstan, who had been exiled by Edwy, was recalled and appointed Archbishop of Canterbury. Dunstan organised an elaborate coronation for Edgar at Bath and afterwards had a powerful influence on the King. Edgar associated himself closely with the Church and his reign was peaceful and the country was well organised, having a common system of weights, measures and coinage. The courts of justice functioned well and both education and literature flourished. In 973 all the lesser kings, including the Welsh princes, promised allegiance and eight of them made a symbolic gesture by rowing a barge with the King at the helm upon the River Dee. This was a golden era. Edgar died on Thursday 8th July 975 and was buried at Glastonbury.
EDWARD the MARTYR	975	Edward the Martyr was Edgar's eldest son but was only about 12 years old when he came to the throne and was crowned by Dunstan. In 976 there was a famine causing great hardship. In 978 the chief councillors of state were assembled on an upper floor of a building in Calne, Wiltshire, when the floor collapsed. All were injured except Dunstan who had been standing on a beam. In the same year Edward decided to visit his step- mother, Elfrida, at Corfe and whilst there she had him murdered so that her son Ethelred would be King. After his death on Monday 18th March 978, he was buried at Shaftesbury and his tomb quickly became a place of pilgrimage. Later he was made a Saint, the annual celebration being held on March 18th, the anniversary of his death.
ETHELRED II	978	Ethelred was the son of King Edgar and began to reign when only 11 years old. He was a weakling, totally unable to withstand the Danish onslaught that re-started on his accession. He continually attempted to buy off the Danes - Danegeld - as when he lost the Battle of Maldon in 991. In a state of near panic he ordered the slaughter of all Danes whether peaceful settlers or not and this foul deed was put in hand on St.Brices Day 13th Nov 1002. Among the victims was the sister of Sweyn, King of Denmark. The Norsemen were furious and ravaged the country from Cornwall to Kent and from South Wales to East Anglia. At this time Ethelred married Emma, sister of the Duke of Normandy. By 1013, Sweyn, who was accompanied by his son Canute, was proclaimed King but he died soon afterwards. Ethelred fled to Normandy when Sweyn's rule prevailed and then on Sweyn's death he returned but the English lords placed severe restrictions on him. The Danes led by Canute returned in 1015 and landing at Poole they crossed the Thames at Cricklade. Ethelred died on Monday 23rd April 1016 and was buried at Glastonbury. He had truly earned his name - Ethelred the Unready. Abroad, the Vikings settled Greenland in 982 and, under Lief Ericsson in 1002, they explored the Eastern coast of America.
EDMUND IRONSIDE	1016	Due to King Ethelred having been so inept, Canute was accepted as King by a large section of the country after Ethelred's death. Canute ruled most of the country North of the Thames whilst Edmund was accepted in the South. Canute laid siege to London and wished to control it with his fleet but his ships could not pass London Bridge, so he had a cutting made on the South side of the bridge and passed his ships around it. Edmund marched on London through the woods at Tottenham and a fierce battle ensued. Canute withdrew and fought Edmund at Ashington in Essex but this time Edmund was beaten. Canute was wise and knew that Edmund was popular so he met him on an island in the Severn near Deerhurst and it was agreed that Edmund should rule Wessex and Canute would rule the land North of the Thames, including London. Just after this, on Friday 30th November 1016, Edmund was murdered and Canute became King of the whole country.
CANUTE the DANE (The first Viking King) England was no longer Saxon!	1017	Canute had been King of Denmark for three years when he came to the English throne and thereafter he ruled the two countries. Here is a case of a poacher turned gamekeeper. He was regarded as a conqueror by the English people and he settled Danish nobles on English land but he did bring order to a people thoroughly demoralised by 30 years of war. He married Emma the widow of King Ethelred and they had a son Hardicanute. He also had a common law wife Elfgifa and their son was Harold. In 1017 he divided England into four provinces each having a se ate ruler. He respected the English church and assisted in restoring it's authority. He made several expeditions to Scandinavia which showed how secure and confident he felt in leaving his new Kingdom. In 1027 he went to Rome for the coronation of Conrad, the Holy Roman Emperor, and used the visit as would a modern diplomat to secure trade benefits, and obtain advantages for the English Church and the noblemen. His chief advisors were Godwin Earl of Wessex and Leofric Earl of Mercia. Canute gave a sense of security to the ordinary man and generally brought order to the country. He died at Shaftesbury on Wednesday November 12th 1035. During his reign, the title "Earl" replaced the Anglo-Saxon "Ealdorman".
HAROLD I	1035	Canute, the previous king, had intended that his legitimate son Hardicanute should succeed him but at the time of his death Hardicanute was fighting in Denmark and a Council held at Oxford in 1036 decreed that Harold should be Regent. In 1037, Harold was made King. Harold was Canute and Elfgifa's illegitimate son and was known as Harold Harefoot. It is likely that Harold's mother Elfgifa was the real ruler. Harold died at Oxford on Monday March 10th 1040. In France, William the illegitimate son of Robert became the Duke of Normandy in 1035. England would know him better in 1066.
HARDICANUTE	1040	Hardicanute was the son of Canute and Emma. He was invited to be King on his half brother's death and was brought to England with a fleet of 62 warships. Hardicanute was the last Danish King of England and he demanded high taxes from the people to pay for his fleet and army. When his tax collectors went to Worcester, two of them were cornered by a mob in the tower of the Minster where they had gone to hide, and were murdered. Hardicanute sent an army to seek revenge but the good citizens of Worcester successfully defended themselves on Bevere island in the Severn. The thwarted army then burned down Worcester. On Tuesday 8th June 1042 Hardicanute attended a wedding of a friend and, while drinking a toast, he collapsed and died. He was only 24 years old. In Scotland, Macbeth killed Duncan at Elgin in 1040.
EDWARD the CONFESSOR	1042	Hardicanute's death ended the male line of the Danish royal house and Edward,the son of Ethelred II, was elected King at London before Hardicanute had been buried. He was crowned at Winchester on Easter Day 1043. Edward was an ascetic and had been brought up in Normandy after Canute came to the throne. He neglected the defence of the land, devoting himself largely to religious matters and founded Westminster Abbey in 1052. Edward made several Normans English bishops and it is alleged that in 1051 he promised William, Duke of Normandy, that he should succeed him as King of England. He laid the foundations of the Cinque Ports. He married the daughter of Earl Godwin, the Danish Earl of Wessex, and there was much intrigue between the Anglo-Danish and Norman elements at the English court. Edward left England weak politically and militarily. He died on Thursday 5th January 1066 and was canonised in 1161. St Edward the Confessor was the country's patron saint until St George replaced him a few centuries later.
HAROLD II (A family fued ensues)	1066	Harold was the son of Godwin, Earl of Wessex, and the brother-in-law of Edward the Confessor. Before coming to the throne Harold had been captured in France and, under duress, is alleged to have sworn that he would not accept the English crown but would support William of Normandy's claim. When Edward the Confessor died the Wittan (Council) elected Harold to succeed him and he was crowned at Westminster Abbey. In Sept 1066 King Harold Hardrada of Norway and Tostig, Harold of England's half brother,sailed up the Humber and landed at Ricall near York. King Harold marched his army from the South up Ermine Street and decisively defeated the invaders at Stamford Bridge on 25th Sept. Meanwhile, William of Normandy was assembling his forces at the mouth of the Somme and as soon as the wind was favourable he crossed the Channel and landed at Pevensey on the 28th September. Harold force marched South and reached Battle near Hastings on the 13th Oct. The following day, Saturday 14th October 1066, is probably the most memorable in English History. Each army consisted of about 7,000 men but the Normans had the advantage of bow-men and cavalry while the English relied on axe and spear-men. The battle raged fiercely all day and in the evening, William ordered his archers to shoot high so that the arrows would drop vertically. Harold was struck in the right eye and mortally wounded. He was buried at Waltham.
WILLIAM I	1066.3	William was the illegitimate son of Robert, Duke of Normandy. He won the English throne by defeating Harold II at Hastings in 1066 and was crowned at Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day of the same year. Throughout his reign he retained the Dukedom of Normandy. Despite many uprisings, he ferociously defeated Anglo-Saxon resistance but Hereward the Wake defied him in the Fens around Ely until 1071. Castles were built at strategic points, including Warwick and Windsor, first of earthbanks and wooden keeps and later of massive stonework. For some 25 years the Normans lived as conquerors in an occupied land but they began to intermarry with the resident population and slowly adapted and adopted some of the Anglo-Saxon culture. William ordered the Domesday Book to be drawn up to record details of land holders and the value of every estate and surprisingly this took only a year to compile. The feudal system, with Normans as Barons was instituted and regular meetings of a Great Council of advisors was set up, with venues at Gloucester, Westminster and Winchester. Llanfranc was made Archbishop of Canterbury and building started on seven new cathedrals. William also set in hand the building of the Tower of London. William, who was 5ft 10ins, married Matilda of Flanders who was only 4ft 2ins. He died of injuries, received while fighting in France, on Thursday 9th September 1087.
WILLIAM II	1087	William was the third son of William the Conqueror and was very fond of his father and always loyal to him. On the old king's wishes, Archbishop of Canterbury Llanfranc crowned him at Westminster Abbey on the 26th Sept 1087. His nickname was Rufus, because of his red face and, like his father, he was fat. He also stuttered. He won military successes in Normandy, and advanced the Norman cause in Wales as well as overcoming rebellions of his barons. The church certainly had no liking for him, a view he reciprocated. He has the reputation of being cruel, harsh capricious and a profligate and yet he was admired by many as a good soldier and leader and a generous man. His true character may be lost forever in the mists of time. He was shot by an arrow in the chest in the New Forest on Thursday 2nd August 1100, it is not known whether by accident or design. He was buried beneath the main tower at Winchester Cathedral. William never married. Elsewhere, in the last decade of the eleventh century, Pope Urban II called for a crusade in the Holy Land and the First Crusade under Bouillon took Jerusalem in 1099. About this time the word "England" began to be used.
HENRY I	1100	Henry, the fourth son of William the Conqueror, was born at Selby. Strangely, at the time William Rufus was shot in the New Forest, Henry was also hunting there and this may or may not be coincidence. He was crowned at Westminster on the 5th August, just three days after William's death. He married Matilda, sister of the King of Scotland and last survivor of the old Saxon monarchy.Henry was in some danger from his brother Robert who claimed the throne for himself. Robert was captured at the battle of Tinchebrai in 1106 and Henry imprisoned him in Cardiff Castle for the rest of his life. Henry was successful in keeping the peace in England despite spending much time in Normandy. He developed the English system of justice and organised the civil service of the time, ticularly the taxation de tment. He was unpopular with the church leaders. He had only one legitimate son, William, but over twenty illegitimate children. His son William was drowned in 1120 aboard his personal vessel the "White Ship" when it struck a rock off the Normandy coast. He wanted his successor to be his daughter Matilda whom the English called Maud. Henry died on Sunday 1st December 1135. Playing cards were used for the first time, in China, in Henry's reign.
STEPHEN	1135	House of Normandy. Stephen was the son of the Count of Blois and Adela, daughter of William I. The rightful heiress was Henry I's daughter Matilda but at the time of Henry's death she was with her husband in Anjou and Stephen was the first to reach London and successfully claim the throne. Matilda or Maud, as she was also known, disputed Stephen's claim and civil war broke out. Upon Maud's death, her son Henry Fitz-Empress continued the challenge. While the dispute continued, Henry married the divorced wife of the French King. This gave him great power as his wife was, in her own right, a reigning Princess. Stephen had married Matilda of Boulogne and hoped that their son Eustace would succeed him, however Eustace died and in 1153 at Winchester, Stephen formally adopted Henry Fitz-Empress as his son and heir. Stephen died on Monday 25th October 1154 and was buried at Faversham. Abroad, the Second Crusade took place between 1147-49 but failed to capture Damascus.
HENRY II	1154	House of Plantagenet. His father was Geoffrey of Anjou and his mother Matilda, daughter of Henry I. Henry II married Eleanor of Aquitaine, the divorced wife of Louis VII of France. He was a powerful thickset, red-haired, freckled man. He was the first of the Plantagenets. The name is derived from his emblem, the broom shrub, which bears the botanical name Planta Genesta later corrupted to Plantagenet. He spent much of his reign in France but did not neglect matters at home, carrying out important improvements in the legal system including widespread use of juries, and he did his best to ensure that justice was fair to all. He appointed his close friend Thomas Becket as Archbishop of Canterbury but once installed, Becket continually opposed him, ticularly regarding the necessary reformation of the ecclesiastical courts. The King had the Pope's backing and he called a meeting of the Great Council at Clarendon after which the Constitutions of Clarendon were issued. Shortly after, Becket fled the Country. He returned in 1170 but promptly fell out with King. Henry was furious and cried out "Who will avenge me of this turbulent priest!". Four knights who heard him mistook Henry's meaning and straightway rode off to Canterbury and on Tuesday 29th Dec 1170 murdered Becket in the Cathedral. On Thursday 6 July 1189, Henry, a great king, died in France.
RICHARD I	1189	House of Plantagenet. Richard, the second surviving son of Henry II, was crowned at Westminster on the 3rd Sept 1189. He spent his youth in France training as a soldier and later fought his father, Henry II, in England. He married Berengaria of Naverre when on a Crusade in 1191. During this Crusade he captured Cyprus. On his way home he was taken prisoner in Austria and held to ransom. There is a nice legend that his faithful minstrel Blondel went from castle to castle strumming the notes of his master's favourite melody. Upon reaching the place of the King's imprisonment he was delighted to hear the answering response from his master's harp. Richard spent only two short periods of his reign in England, the rest of time he was away on Crusades or in France. He was impetuous, brave and forgiving but had no political aptitude. His contemporaries called him Coeur de Lion. Richard died in France on Tuesday 6th April 1199. The story of Robin Hood is based on characters who lived in Richard's reign.titutions of Clarendon were issued. Shortly after, Becket fled the Country. He returned in 1170 but promptly fell out with King. Henry was furious and cried out "Who will avenge me of this turbulent priest!". Four knights who heard him mistook Henry's meaning and straightway rode off to Canterbury and on Tuesday 29th Dec 1170 murdered Becket in the Cathedral. On Thursday 6 July 1189, Henry, a great king, died in France.
JOHN	1199	House of Plantagenet. John was the youngest son of Henry II. He married Isabella of Gloucester and then divorced her and married Isabella of Angouleme. John imposed crippling taxes and tightened the already severe forest laws, all to raise revenue for his war against the French. This war cost him Normandy and led to high inflation resulting in widespread poverty. He antagonised the Church bringing on an interdict from the Pope, and John himself was excommunicated. He captured and murdered his nephew Arthur of Brittany. The whole population, high and low alike, were in a state of near rebellion. The barons drew up a document which they were intent upon John signing. This document was not a formal constitution but a practical statement that the King must respect institutional customs and law. On Monday 15th June 1215 King John signed and sealed the document on the island of Runnymeade in the Thames. This was one of the most memorable events in English history, the document was Magna Carta. Afterwards John reverted to his bad old ways and Louis, son of the French King, was invited to replace him. Louis entered London unopposed in May 1216 and civil war began to flame. Fortunately for England, John died on Wednesday 19th October 1216 at Newark. During John's reign, in 1212, London Bridge caught fire and and over 3,000 were killed by the flames or drowning.
HENRY III	1216	House of Plantagenet. Henry was the son of King John and Isabella of Angouleme. He was born at Winchester and was only 9 years old when he came to the throne which he occupied for 56 years. He married Eleanor of Provence. While he was a minor the land was ruled by the Earl of Pembroke and Hubert de Burgh. His personal rule was weak and ineffective. Many followers from his wife's country were given important positions and the English barons became restless. By 1258 Henry was compelled to hand power to these barons, led by Simon de Monfort. War broke out between the barons and Henry, and he was defeated and made prisoner at Lewes. He had to agree that a new Great Council or liament, as it was now called for the first time, be set up. The members of this liament would be chosen half by the King and half by the barons. In 1265 his son Edward defeated the barons at Evesham and de Monfort was killed. After this, although Henry remained King, the real ruler was Edward. Henry's most lasting contribution to his country was his advancement of the design of Gothic architecture. In ticular he instituted the building of a new Abbey at Westminster and in Oct 1269 the relics of the Saint, Edward the Confessor,were laid in a shrine behind it's altar. Henry died on Wednesday 16th November 1272 and was buried at Westminster Abbey. Elsewhere,in 1263 the Scots won the Hebrides from Norway.
EDWARD I	1272	House of Plantagenet. Edward was the eldest son of Henry III.He was on a Crusade at the time of his accession and returned to England in 1274. Reigning for 35 years he was a strong and wise King. He married Eleanor of Castille and after her death Margaret, daughter of Phillip III of France.Edward had 16 children, the most of any Monarch. He carried out much needed reform and clarification of the law. Starting in 1277 he set out to resolve the Welsh problem which had proved so troublesome in Henry III's reign. The area around Snowdon and Anglesy harboured Llewelyn and other warlike princes. Llewelyn was killed in battle and the Welsh resistance collapsed. The Statute of Wales in 1284 arranged for administration under a mixed English and Welsh law. Castles were built to secure the Principality, including Caernarvon where Edward's son was born and who was created Prince of Wales in 1301. During his campaign in Wales, it was found that the long bow used by the Southern Welsh, was an amazingly effective weapon which would revolutionise forthcoming conflicts. Edward next marched on Scotland and won a crushing victory at Falkirk but Robert Bruce arose and made himself King of Scotland. Although known as The Hammer of the Scots,Edward had not succeeded in subjugating that noble land. Edward may be best remembered by the Model liament called in 1295.He died,marching against the Scots,on 7th July 1307.
EDWARD II	1307	House of Plantagenet. Son of Edward I, he was the first English prince to bear the title Prince of Wales. He married Isabella, daughter of King Philip IV of France. All the evidence indicates that Edward was a homosexual. His first close advisor and unnatural friend was Piers Gaveson who was beheaded by the opposing barons at Deddington, Oxon. In 1314 Edward marched against the Scots and on the 24th June of that year his large army was massacred by Robert Bruce at Bannockburn. Thomas, the Earl of Lancaster, the leader of the barons opposing Edward, gained control for a time but Edward found new favourites in the Despensers, and Thomas was overcome in 1321 and subsequently put to death. In 1324 Edward's wife Isabella returned to France and then with a Welsh Marcher Lord, Roger Mortimer, they assembled followers and in 1327 set sail and landed in Suffolk. Edward was captured and deposed and the Despensers were hanged. Edward was imprisoned at Berkley Castle, Gloucestershire and attempts were first made to starve him to death. Then an order was issued by Isabella's followers that he should be killed without a mark being left on his body. And at Berkley Castle on Monday 21st September 1327 he was disembowelled with a red hot iron rod. Edward was buried at Gloucester Cathedral.
EDWARD III	1327	House of Plantagenet.Son of Edward II,he married Phillipia of Hainault. Edward's reign lasted 50 years.He was only 14 when he acceded and the country was ruled by his mother Isabella and her lover Robert Mortimer. When he was 17 Edward took control and had Mortimer hanged and his mother imprisoned. He organised a professional army including trained long bow archers.In 1340 the English Navy beat the French thus winning control of the Channel and in 1346 he sailed with his son the Black Prince to start the 100 Years War in France.On Monday evening the 26th August 1346 he fought a French army three times the size of his at Crecy and the battle raged through the night into the next day. The French were annihilated and Edward followed this by laying siege to Calais and taking the town within 12 months. Gunpowder was used for the first time in this campaign but the real winner was the English long bow. At home, the Black Death raged and about 500,000 people died in England. On 19th Sept 1356 the Black Prince and his brother John of Gaunt slaughtered a French army twice their size at Poitiers. Under Edward, the House of Commons was developed as a means of raising taxes. The first Bible in English was compiled by Wyclif and it is likely that the oldest surviving working clock was installed at Salisbury Cathedral. The Black Prince died in 1376 and Edward, in his dotage, died on Sunday 21st June 1377.
RICHARD II	1377	House of Plantagenet. Son of the Black Prince, Richard married Anne of Bohemia and after she died Isabella of France. He was 10 when he came to the throne and John of Gaunt headed a Regent's Council which ruled the country. The Black Death had reduced the population by nearly a half causing a labour shortage and dissent was fuelled by Wyclif's followers, the Lollards. Taxation was high and in 1381 there was a peasant's revolt led by Wat Tyler. Tyler was killed but much damage was done in London. John Ball and Jack Straw were other inciters of the peasants.For the first time, unions were formed and the feudal system was in disarray. Richard was over 20 before he mastered his Regent's Council but unfortunately a number of his courtiers were effeminate, notably Robert de Vere. The so called Merciless liament of 1388 was influenced by the Lords Appellant which included John of Gaunt's son Henry Bolingbroke. This group defied Richard and killed all his supporters except de Vere who managed to escape abroad where he later died. However by 1397 Richard regained control and his opponents were killed, except Henry who was exiled. John of Gaunt died in 1399 and in May of that year Richard undertook an expedition to Ireland to restore order.While he was away, Gaunt's son Henry bid for power and upon Richard's return Henry had him thrown into Pontefract Castle and subsequently he was murdered.
HENRY IV	1399	House of Lancaster. Henry was the eldest son of John of Gaunt and married Mary Bohun. His claim to the throne had been most tenuous and his succession took place in dubious circumstances following the deposing and subsequent murder of Richard II. Before this event Henry had had most of the noble qualities, handsome, an active knight, a musician, pious and an accomplished linguist. Subsequently he seemed to have dwelt on the great wrong done to Richard and he declined into a sick man at an early age. It is true that he had many difficulties, he was for the first time for any English King, closely controlled by liament especially in financial affairs. He had many uprisings to deal with notably from the Welsh under their educated leader Owen Glendower. At one stage, the French sent troops to aid the Welsh but matters eased when Harlech Castle was taken following a siege. Henry also faced insurrections from English barons, including an encounter with the Earl of Northumberland and his son Hotspur at Shrewsbury in 1403 when Hotspur was slain. To add to his troubles, the Scots harried his forces virtually throughout his reign. It is to Henry's credit that the Kingdom survived intact. As Henry's health failed his son the Prince of Wales was drawn more into affairs of state. Shortly after having a severe fit in Westminster Abbey, Henry died on Friday 20th March 1413.
HENRY V	1413	House of Lancaster. Eldest son of Henry IV, born at Monmouth,married Catherine,daughter of the King of France. Henry settled the differences between the Court and nobility that had marred the previous reign but ruthlessly put down the Lollards. Civil war broke out in France and Henry was determined to make the most of this. He first reinforced his fleet, then on the 11th August 1415 he sailed from Southampton for the mouth of the Seine. His objective was the throne of France. He marched through France with an army of about 5,000 including 4,000 long-bowmen. At 11.0 am on Friday 25th October 1415, St Crispin's Day, he met a French army of 20,000 at Agincourt. The French lost nearly 10,000 to his 400. The long bow had again proved virtually unbeatable. A shadow was cast over this victory because the English killed all their prisoners. In May 1420 Charles VI of France recognised Henry as heir to the French throne and as Regent during Charles lifetime. At home, Henry had the body of the murdered Richard II reburied at Westminster. Henry had a very strong sense of justice; he had no favourites and brooked no nepotism. He was strong willed and competent but could be cruel.Generally, his subjects loved him.He died in France on Monday 31st August 1422 from dysentery contracted on the battlefield. His ambition was to lead Western Europe on a Holy Crusade.
HENRY VI	1422	House of Lancaster. Only son of Henry V, less than a year old on accession,he married Margaret of Anjou. Was also,in name, King of France. In a long and costly series of wars, all French possessions were lost except Calais. The French artillery was supreme and Joan of Arc played a notable t in the French victories.The English burned her at the stake for heresy and sorcery in Rouen on 30th May 1431. The Hundred Years' war ended with the defeat of the English at Castillon in 1453.King Henry was a weak "pawn" in the hands of a strong Queen and powerful Knights. He became insane in 1453 and Queen Margaret fought on his behalf. The Wars of the Roses began in 1455 and Henry was deposed in 1461 and sought refuge in Scotland and Wales. Edward, Duke of York, was made King but in 1470 Henry was restored for a few months until Edward again ousted him and he was thrown into captivity in the Tower and put to death on Tuesday 21st May 1471. Henry was completely unsuited for his position, especially after he lost his sanity. He founded Eton College in 1440 and King's College, Cambridge in 1441. Henry started his reign at the age of 9 months, the youngest of any English Monarch.
EDWARD IV	1461	House of York. Eldest son of Richard, Duke of York.Married Elizabeth Woodville.He fought against Henry VI in the Wars of the Roses and after the Battle of Mortimer's Cross in 1460,Henry was deposed and Edward declared King. Henry was restored for a few months in 1470 but Edward gained victories at Barnet and Tewkesbury and Henry was thrown into the Tower of London and murdered in 1471. Edward was a commanding figure over 6ft tall and very handsome but he was glutton for food and drink and also a womaniser. He amassed a considerable fortune for the throne from his seizure of the Lancastrian estates at the time of Henry's downfall. Additionally, the French King paid him an annual stipend. William Caxton the printer was a friend of his. Edward had his brother the Duke of Clarence charged with treason and after being found guilty he was put to death by being drowned in a butt of Malmesbury wine! Edward died very suddenly of a fever on Wednesday 9th April 1483.
EDWARD V	1483	House of York. Son of Edward IV, he was only 12 years old when he acceded and the Duke of Gloucester was appointed his guardian. Edward had been living with his younger brother Richard,aged 9,who was the Duke of York,with their mother Queen Elizabeth,near Ludlow.The Duke of Gloucester, who was also named Richard, brought the young King to London ready for the coronation. Gloucester installed him in a "suitable residence" - the Tower of London. Shortly afterwards he took the Queen's remaining son Richard to join his brother at the Tower. Gloucester's friends then proclaimed that the two children were illegitimate and that Edward had no claim to the throne. liament ratified this and Richard, Duke of Gloucester, was proclaimed King Richard III. The two young boys were murdered by Gloucester and his friends and their bodies lay undiscovered until the reign of Charles II when their remains were transferred to Westminster Abbey.
RICHARD III	1483.3	House of York. Younger brother of Edward IV. He married Anne, daughter of the Earl of Warwick and the widow of Edward, the Prince of Wales. Although Richard was crowned he was hated throughout the land because of the disappearance of the little Princes. They were never seen alive after the summer of 1483 and although it cannot be proved that Richard was their murderer, it is fact that he was at the Tower on the night they disappeared and it is probable that he was guilty of the crime.Richard made his headquarters at Nottingham and feared that Henry Tudor, the Earl of Richmond, would return from exile in France and challenge for the throne. Henry Tudor, the Welshman, was a descendant of John of Gaunt, Edward III's son. On the 7th August 1485 Henry Tudor arrived at Milford Haven with a force of some 5,000 men to challenge Richard. The King was waiting at Bosworth near Leicester and the two armies flung themselves on each other at Bosworth Field on Monday 22nd August 1485.Richard was slain and his body was carried on horseback to show to all in the City of Leicester. He was buried at the Grey Friar's Chapel. His crown, which he had worn in battle, was recovered from beneath a bush on the battlefield and placed on the head of the victorious Henry - the first Tudor King. From about this age the language had evolved so that it would be just understandable to a present-day person.
HENRY VII	1485	House of Tudor. Born at Pembroke, Henry was the son of Edmund Tudor and Margaret Beaufort,a descendant of John of Gaunt. He married Elizabeth the daughter of Edward IV and they had four children; Arthur who married Catherine of Aragon and who predeceased his father at the age of 16, Henry who later became Henry VIII, Margaret who married James IV of Scotland, and Mary. Henry VII had married solely for political reasons as Elizabeth was the heiress of the rival House. However, after their marriage he fell deeply in love with her and was heartbroken on her death. During his reign Henry had few military concerns other than to put down a few minor pretenders to the throne and to suppress an uprising by the Cornish. He was a most able administrator and accumulated great wealth for the throne. He had a shrewd way of selecting the right man for the job and led the country from disorder into a position of great strength. He instituted the establishment of envoys in foreign countries and encouraged trade with the Continent. He also formed the Yeomen of the Guard at the Tower of London. Henry died at Richmond on Sunday 22nd April 1509 and he and his wife are buried at Westminster Abbey. Elsewhere, great discoveries were being made. In 1492 Columbus discovered the West Indies, in 1497 John Cabot discovered Newfoundland and in 1498 Vasco da Gama opened the sea route to India.}
HENRY VIII	1509	House of Tudor. Second son of Henry VII. Henry was well educated having a flair for writing and music, he was able to speak three languages and was fond of sport especially riding and tennis. Upon his accession he married Catherine of Aragon, his brother's widow, and was desperate for a son. One had been born but died a month later. By 1526 he wished to marry Anne Boleyn but could not while Catherine lived. Cardinal Wolsey suggested that it might have been illegal for him to have married his brother's widow but the Pope would not accept this. In frustration Henry dismissed Wolsey and Thomas More replaced him. Cranmer suggested an appeal to the universities to resolve the issue and they decided in Henry's favour and Cranmer then pronounced the marriage invalid. Thomas More disagreed and was executed and replaced by Thomas Cromwell. In 1533 Henry married Anne and, by liamentary Acts, the English Church was severed from Rome and he became its head in place of the Pope. He had Anne executed for infidelity in 1536 and married Jane Seymour who died in child-birth. He then married, for political reasons, Anne of Cleves but did not like her and pensioned her off; he then married Catherine Howard who was also unfaithful and executed. His final wife was Catherine Parr.Henry and Cromwell dissolved the monasteries. Afterwards Henry had him beheaded. Henry died of an ulcerated leg on Friday 28th Jan 1547.
EDWARD VI	1547	House of Tudor. Son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour. Jane died immediately after Edward's birth and as he was the only male heir Henry had him transferred to a country estate so that his health should benefit from clean fresh air. Edward was only 9 when his father died and the Duke of Somerset acted as Regent. Somerset laid down a strict Protestant educational programme for Edward, and England became a wholly Protestant state.Thomas Cranmer introduced two new prayer books between 1549 and 1552,and in churches sacred images and stained glass windows were destroyed and wall paintings were obliterated. Somerset invaded Scotland and took Edingburgh with a view to betrothing Edward to Mary the infant Queen of Scotland, but she fled to France. After putting down an uprising in the West Country against the new prayer books,another revolt took place in Norfolk against enclosure of the land. This was suppressed by the Duke of Northumberland who afterwards fell out with Somerset and had him beheaded in the Tower. Meanwhile the young King continued with his studies and became a Protestant bigot. He had tuberculosis and probably knew that his life was closing and was anxious that the Protestant Lady Jane Grey should succeed him. Edward died aged 16 on Thursday 6th July 1553.
JANE	1553	House of Tudor. Eldest daughter of Henry Grey, Duke of Suffolk, her mother being the granddaughter of Henry VII. She married Lord Guildford Dudley and had a remarkable intellect. Jane succeeded Edward VI but Mary, Henry VIII's daughter,had powerful friends who were much too strong for Jane and she was arrested 9 days after being proclaimed Queen. She was tried, sentenced to death for high treason, and on Monday 12th February 1554, she and her husband were beheaded on Tower Hill. Thus after the shortest reign in English history, the death of the 16 year old Lady Jane Grey thwarted Edward's plan for a Protestant successor.
MARY I	1553.3	House of Tudor. Daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon. Mary had been educated in the Roman Catholic faith by her mother. She married King Phillip II of Spain and was proclaimed Queen when the attempt to install Lady Jane Grey failed. Mary restored the Roman Catholic religion in England and the Protestants were ruthlessly persecuted. Bishops Latimer and Ridley were burned at the stake in Oxford in 1555 and old Archbishop Cranmer who had himself arranged the burning of many heretics, was burned on the 21st March 1556. In 1558 Calais was lost by the English to the French, without any resistance. Mary was a very unhappy sovereign, she was childless, she had no affection from her subjects and her husband left her and returned to Spain. Mary's health gave way and she died on Thursday 17th November 1558.
ELIZABETH I	1558	House of Tudor. Daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. This was an age of brilliance; Shakespeare, Marlow and Spenser in literature, Drake circumnavigated the globe and Raleigh made voyages of discovery. Elizabeth had a great knack of picking good advisers and Burleigh and Walsingham were among her ministers. Her first task had been to restore the very weak economy and then she established the Church of England. Throughout her reign Catholics were harshly persecuted. Mary Queen of Scots,the granddaughter of Henry VIII's sister Margaret and the French Dauphine, posed a threat and she was imprisoned and then executed. In 1588 the Spanish Armada of 130 ships set sail from Cadiz with the intention of collecting allies in the Netherlands and then invading England. The Queen left London for Tilbury where a defending force was assembling. On Friday 19th July 1588 the armada was sighted off the Lizard and the English Feet of 80 ships under Lord Howard of Effingham together with Drake, Frobisher and Hawkins intercepted it in the Channel and caused havoc by setting fire-ships upon it. The weather deteriorated and the Spanish Fleet was blown around the North of Scotland wrecking many of their vessels. Only 53 returned to Spain. Elizabeth, who had been beautiful in youth, grew old and ugly and spurned the advances of the Earl of Essex and had him executed. She died on Thursday 24th March 1603. JAMES I 1603 House of Stuart. Son of Mary Queen of Scots and Lord Darnley he was proclaimed James VI of Scotland in 1567 and became James I of England on Elizabeth's death in 1603. James married Anne of Denmark and they had 6 children but by nature he was homosexual and the appointment of favourites as advisers caused resentment. On taking the English throne James was entitled King of Great Britain. James had a Presbyterian background and the Roman Catholic conspirators who attempted to blow up the opening of liament on Tuesday 5th November 1605 were suitably dealt with. Robert Cecil and Francis Bacon were among his advisers but he had Sir Walter Raleigh executed and would not tolerate privateering which had been so profitable in Elizabeth's reign. During his reign the Authorised Version of the Bible was published and the Scot, Napier, devised logarithm tables. In 1607 Virginia in America was colonised while in 1620 the Pilgrim Fathers settled in New England. Old Will Shakespeare died in 1616 whilst in 1611 Ulster was colonised by Scottish and English settlers. James's faculties declined as he grew older and he died on Sunday 27th March 1625.
CHARLES I	1625	House of Stuart. Son of James I, he married Henrietta Maria, a Roman Catholic and the sister of Louis XIII of France.Charles was only 5ft 4ins and had a pronounced stammer. He believed in the Divine Right of Kings and was a "High Church" anglican. He supported the arts; Inigo Jones the architect did much in this period as did the playwright Ben Johnson while Rubens and Van Dyck both painted for the King. He made Laud the Archbishop of Canterbury. He was extravagant and tried to rule without liament. Forced to call it in 1640,it issued the "Grand Remonstrance" and he entered the Commons to arrest the ringleaders but they had flown. The Civil War started in 1642 and at first Charles did well especially at Edgehill, Lostwithiel and Hereford but after Naseby in 1645 his fortunes waned and in 1646 he lied with Cromwell,Ireton and Fairfax all of whom wished him to remain as a constitutional monarch. Charles procrastinated and in 1647 he slipped away to Carisbroke Castle on the Isle of Wight. A second War now started, the Royalists, Scots, Welsh and the Fleet rose up but they were very quickly defeated by Cromwell's new Model Army. Cromwell was now Dictator of the country. The King was tried in Westminster Hall and although refusing to recognise the tribunal, he received the death sentence and at 1 p.m. on Tuesday 30th January 1649 he was beheaded at Whitehall.
COMMONWEALTH	1649	Oliver Cromwell or more correctly Oliver Williams, his true name, was virtual Dictator of England and liament after Charles death. He was a member of the Puritan Cult in opposition to the very High Church and near Catholicism of Charles's court. He and his followers believed in the literal meaning of every word in the Bible ticularly the Old Testament. He had been an instigator of the Grand Remonstrance which set out the faults of the King and the aims of liament. He believed his steps were guided by Divinity and he gained victories at Marston Moor and Naseby. There was a subtle but important difference between liament and Cromwell, the former supported Presbyterianism but Cromwell, within limits, favoured religious tolerance. He dealt viciously with the Irish and defeated the Scots at Dunbar. In 1653 he dismissed liament and took the title of Lord Protector setting up residence at Hampton Court. He restored order to the nation, fostered trade, re-established justice and learning and regained British supremacy of the seas. In 1657 he was offered the throne but refused. Always fearful of assassination, he died on 3rd September 1658 and was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son Richard. In May 1659 Richard gave up office and went to France. He returned to England in 1680 and died at Cheshunt on 12th July 1712. CHARLES II 1659 House of Stuart. Son of Charles I, he married Princess Catherine of Braganza. When his father's cause was lost in 1646 he went to the Isles of Scilly then Jersey and on to France. In 1650 he was crowned King of the Scots at Scone. He invaded England in 1651 and was beaten by Cromwell at Worcester and after the battle hid in an oak tree. With difficulty he escaped to France. Returning to England in 1660 he was welcomed as King. Plague struck the country in 1665 killing over 60,000 in London alone and in the next year the Great Fire made 200,000 homeless. That was not all, the Dutch Fleet sailed up the Medway and England had to sue for peace.After the Great Fire,Sir Christopher Wren built a new and better London. Charles had St James k re-created and built Chelsea Hospital for old soldiers. He supported the sciences, founding Greenwich Observatory and the Royal Society. Boyle, Halley and Newton are illustrious names of his reign and Nell Gwynn will be remembered for other reasons. His Chief Minister was Clarendon who freed the Church of it's Cromwellian past. Titus Oates raised the alarm of a Popish plot and many Catholics were executed. Charles himself was a Catholic, certainly just before his death and probably before.He had many mistresses and the future Duke of Monmouth was his illegitimate son. He brought much needed elegance to the land. The Merry Monarch died on Friday 6th February 1685. JAMES II 1685 House of Stuart. Second son of Charles I.He married twice, his first wife was Anne Hyde,daughter of Clarendon and they had two daughters Mary and Anne, both queens. His second wife was Mary of Modena who bore him a son, James Edward,the Old Pretender. Prior to taking the throne,James had been Duke of York. liament knew that James was a Catholic but as he declared that he would protect the Church of England they decided to give him a chance to prove his word. James wished that Anglicans, Catholics and Dissenters should be treated equally but liament insisted only the Anglican faith should be recognised. In 1685 the Duke of Monmouth landed at Lyme Regis in a rebellion against James. He was defeated at Sedgemoor and executed on Tower Hill.Judge Jeffries was then sent to the West Country to deal with the prisoners at the Bloody Assizes and over a thousand were hanged or deported. James did not call liament for over two years and appointed Catholics to key positions. The whole country was alarmed at James's dispensations to the Catholics and many feared that another Civil War would start. In 1688, William of Orange,who had married Mary, Charles I's daughter, landed from Holland at Torbay and the whole country came to his support. James was forced to flee and in December 1688 left the country for ever. Thus occurred the Glorious Revolution.
WILLIAM III & MARY II	1689	House of Stuart. William was the son of The Prince of Orange and Charles I's daughter Mary, whilst his wife was the daughter of James II. William and Mary were joint sovereigns as both had a good claim to the throne. William's object in taking the throne was to ensure that England remained t of the Grand Alliance against France who had territorial ambitions in Europe. William agreed to a liamentary demand for constitutional changes which permitted non-conformist Christians the right of worship; ensured that the Commons controlled Royal expenditure; provided for a new liament to be called every 3 years; made the appointment of judges subject to liamentary approval and, perhaps most important, laid down that only Protestants could succeed to the throne. William fought against the French and although reducing their power they were not decisively beaten. In 1690 William defeated James II and his French allies at the Battle of the Boyne in Ireland and the expenses of these wars necessitated the creation of the National Debt and this tly led to the establishment of the Bank of England in 1694. Queen Mary died of smallpox in 1694. The menace of France remained and William appointed John Churchill, Earl of Marlborough, Commander-in-Chief of the Grand Alliance. William, who was somewhat hunch-backed and had always suffered from asthma, died on Sunday 8th March 1702.
ANNE	1702	House of Stuart. Anne was the younger daughter of James II and she married Prince George of Denmark whom she deeply loved. They had 17 children but none lived beyond the age of 11. She was fat and suffered much pain - probably gout. Untrained for monarchy she was conscientious but greatly under the influence of the Duchess of Marlborough and later Mrs Masham. The Duke of Marlborough took charge of the English and Dutch armies when the war against France began in 1702. Marlborough gained superb victories at Blenheim 1704, Ramillies 1706 and Oudenarde in 1708 and although he again defeated the French at Malplaquet his losses were heavy. Grateful Anne awarded him Woodstock Estate in Oxford where Blenheim Palace was built. Early in her reign, in 1704, the British Fleet captured Gibralter from the Spanish. In 1707 the Act of Union between England and Scotland was declared stating that the two nations should be known as Great Britain. The Treaty of Utrecht ended the French war and Britain was acknowledged as possessors of Gibralter, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia and the Hudson Bay Territory. Anne's husband died in 1708. Her reign was the first in which liamentary ties and elections were of real significance. Anne died on Sunday 1st August 1714.
GEORGE I	1714	House of Hanover. Son of Ernest Augustus, Elector of Hanover, and Sophia who was a granddaughter of James I. George could speak only a little English and spent most of his reign in Hannover.When in England he resided at St. James Palace. He was a boorish man but had a good taste for music and brought Handel to England. He had a weird idea that St James k should be ploughed up to grow vegetables! The Jacobite (supporters of James II) rising occurred in 1715 but was put down at Preston by General Wills. In general, the Tories had some sympathy with the Jacobites, consequently the Whigs were generally in power. Robert Walpole had a secret service to discover their plans and managed to keep one step ahead of them. Because he was so efficient he became Chancellor of the Exchequer and First Lord of the Treasury - effectively the first Prime Minister. The South Sea Bubble scandal hit the country in 1720. This had little to do with the South Sea, it was an investment company and received a contract to service the National Debt and when this was known, it's shares shot up. The company crashed a few weeks later and the shares became worthless. Thousands of men were ruined and it took all Walpole's efforts to restore confidence. liament's life was extended from 3 to 7 years and as George was seldom available, the Cabinet system evolved. George died at Osnabruck on Sunday 11th June 1727.
GEORGE II	1727	House of Hanover. Son of George I he married Caroline of Brunswick and they had two sons,the first Frederick Prince of Wales died before his father.George II hated his father and his son Frederick hated him. He retained Walpole, who weighed 20 stone, as Prime Minister until after Queen Caroline died in 1737. The King was obsessed by etiquette and punctuality but did not play a great t in politics. However he was the last British monarch to lead an army in the field when he gained victory over the French in 1743 at Dettingham.In 1745 Bonnie Prince Charlie led a Jacobite rising and occupied all Scotland and marched into England taking Carlisle,Preston and Lancaster. The Young Pretender then returned North and his force was slaughtered at Culloden Moor. Charles escaped, helped by Flora Mcdonald, via Skye to France and perpetual exile. In 1756 Minorca was lost to the French and Admiral Byng was made the scapegoat and shot for cowardice. William Pitt, later the Earl of Chatham, was a great liamentary orator and statesman at this time and he oversaw Wolfe's victory at Quebec and Clive defeat the French in India. The Gregorian Calendar was adopted in Britain in 1752, which resulted in the omission of the days 3rd-13th Sept. The British museum was founded in 1753. George II died of a heart attack while sitting on the lavatory on Saturday 25th October 1760
GEORGE III	1760	House of Hanover. Grandson of George II he married Princess Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz and they had 15 children. He made Lord North prime minister and for 12 years they ruled together and lost the American Colonies. In 1783 American independence was recognised and in the same year Pitt the younger became prime minister.Through- out George's reign the industrial revolution grew ever quicker. Numerous canals were built, the first steamship sailed the Clyde and Arkwright,Hargreaves,Cartwright,Watt and Bolton transformed the cotton and other industries. In France, the Bastille was stormed in 1789 and Louis XVI was beheaded four years later. Napolean then came to power and was made Emperor. Nelson defeated his fleet at the Nile in 1798 and decisively at Trafalgar, where Nelson was killed, on Monday 21st Oct 1805. On land, the Duke of Wellington was successful in a number of battles in Spain and France, and Napolean was finally beaten at Waterloo on Sunday 18th June 1815. In George's reign, Capt Cooke discovered Australia in 1770. In 1783 the first flights in balloons were made. In 1807 slave trading was abolished in the British Empire. Earlier, in 1774, Scheele and Priestly discovered chlorine and oxygen. George III became insane in 1811 and the Prince of Wales took over as Regent. George, who had been a kindly autocrat, died on Saturday 29th January 1820.}
GEORGE IV		House of Hanover. Eldest son of George III. He made a morganatic marriage to the Catholic Mrs Fitzherbert in 1784 and married Caroline of Brunswick in 1795. He had one child by Caroline, Princess Charlotte but she died before George. When young,George was handsome and polished but it would seem he was bored with his life and quickly degenerated into a grossly fat debauchee. He loathed Caroline and she was indeed repulsive, being fat, ugly and dirty. It is likely she committed adultery in Italy and the government introduced a Bill to deprive her of the title of Queen but the Bill was withdrawn. She was refused access to Westminster Abbey when George was crowned.George together with his friend Beau Brummell were leaders in fashion, and he commissioned Brighton Pavilion and helped make seaside resorts popular. In his reign, Napolean died at St Helena in 1821, Brazil gained independence in 1822, the repeal of the Combination Acts in 1824 helped Trades Unions and in 1825 the first passenger railway from Stockton to Darlington opened. Geo Stephenson designed the Rocket in 1829 and the Atlantic was crossed by the Dutch steamship Curaco in 1826. Robert Peel established the Metropolitan Police in 1829 and in the same year the Catholic Emancipation Act was passed. George died on Saturday 26th June 1830.
WILLIAM IV	1830	House of Hanover. William was the third son of George III. Before coming to the throne he was Duke of Clarence and for 20 years he had an association with Mrs Jordan, their children bearing the name Fitzclarence. He married Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen but had no children. Trained as a midshipman, he became an efficient officer and his naval training influenced him throughout life. The most important legislation of his reign was the Reform Act of 1832 which extended the vote to the male middle classes. Other events of note included the division of Belgium and Holland into se ate countries in 1830. In 1831 Faraday discovered electro-magnetic induction and invented the dynamo, motor and transformer. The electric telegraph was invented by Morse in 1832 and by 1835 Fox-Talbot was producing photographs. In 1833 the first Factory Act prohibited children under 9 from working and, in the same year, the first government grants were made to schools. In 1834 six labourers at Tolpuddle in Dorset were sentenced to transportation for attempting to form a Trades Union. A year later the Chartist movement began,this was an attempt to enfranchise all adult males. In 1836 Texas became independent of Mexico. William died on Saturday 26th June 1830.
VICTORIA	1837	House of Hanover. Alexandrina Victoria was the daughter of the Duke of Kent and the granddaughter of George III. She married her cousin Prince Albert of Saxe - Coburg and had nine children. She and Albert set a moral example to the Nation at a time when morality was lax. They were both moved by the exploitation of children by industry and the pressing need for relief of poverty. Albert died in 1861 and Victoria was grief stricken for a number of years.She took some comfort from her Scottish servant John Brown. Victoria was the longest lived , 81 years 243 days, and longest reigning, 63 years 216 days, of any monarch. In her reign, education was made compulsory and the penny post and telephones were introduced. Railways, hospitals, sewage systems and reservoirs were constructed and electricity and gas began to be used. The London Underground Railway was commenced in 1863 and Trades Unions were legalised in 1871. Florence Nightingale helped reduce suffering in the Crimean War and Izambard K.Brunel, Charles Darwin, Edison, Bell, Pasteur and U.S.President Abraham Lincoln were prominent figures. The Empire was greatly expanded and there were conflicts with the Boers,Zulus and also in India,whilst in America the Civil War was fought. The Corn Laws were repealed and Free Trade was adopted. Premier Disraeli was her favourite. Victoria died on Tuesday 22nd January 1901.
EDWARD VII	1901	House of Saxe-Coburg. Eldest son of Queen Victoria, he married Princess Alexandria of Denmark and they had four children. Sandringham estate was purchased for him and he led a very full social life being fond of the turf, cards, golf, shooting and dining. He was a heavy eater and smoker but drank only in moderation. He was a womaniser and was involved in a number of scandals including two court cases. He frequently visited France and encouraged close relations with that country resulting in the Entente Cordiale in 1903.He was uncle of the German Kaiser and the relationship between them was not good and in the First World War the Germans claimed that it had been brought about because of Edward's policies. Norway and Sweden became se ate countries in 1905, and in 1906 San Francisco was destroyed by earthquake and fire. New Zealand was granted Dominion status in 1907. In 1909, old age pensions were introduced in Britain, the American Peary was the first to reach the North Pole, the Frenchman Bleriot was the first to fly the Channel and manufacture of the Ford Model T began. Many regard Edward's reign as a golden era but much remained to be done to improve the health and living standards of the poor. Edward died on Friday 6th May 1910.
GEORGE V	1910	House of Windsor. Eldest surviving son of Edward VII, he married Princess Mary of Teck and they had 6 children. The name Windsor was adopted in 1917 because of anti- German feeling to the previous name of Saxe-Coburg. George V had been trained in his youth as a sailor and always retained a bluff and salty manner. He loved yachting and philately. He introduced Christmas broadcasts in 1932 and his popularity was shown at the time of the Silver Jubilee in 1935. He lived in difficult and often tragic times. The Titanic sank in 1912 with the loss of 1513 lives. The First World War started on Tuesday 4th August 1914 and about 30 million men were under arms. The conditions in the trenches over the 4 years were appalling; in one battle alone, the Somme in 1916, British losses were nearly half a million. In 1917 unrestricted submarine warfare was declared by the Germans, and Britain was brought near to starvation.Direction of the war effort improved after the appointment of Lloyd George as Premier in 1916 and of the French general Foch as Western Front commander in 1918. The war ended on Monday 11th November 1918. After the war, in 1921,the Irish Free State was set up. There was a general strike in 1926, and in 1929 the world's stockmarkets collapsed. This was followed by mass unemployment.In 1933 Adolf Hitler became Germany's leader. George V died at Sandringham on Monday 20th January 1936.
EDWARD VIII	1936	House of Windsor. Edward was the eldest son of George V and his upbringing had been arranged to pre e him for the throne. After training as a naval cadet at Dartmouth and attending Oxford University he joined the Grenadier Guards just in time for the First World War. At the end of the war he made a number of official tours of the Empire. When he came to the throne on 20th January 1936, he was unmarried but it was universally known, except in Britain, that he was the constant companion of Mrs Wallis Warfield Simpson. By mutual agreement, the British press had refrained from publishing details of this. When the news was publicly announced that he wished to marry Mrs Simpson, a constitutional crisis was inevitable. Prime Minister Baldwin and most of the British people and the Empire leaders were opposed to this but he had some support including Churchill and Lord Beaverbrook. After much heart searching King Edward abdicated on Thursday 10th December 1936. Subsequently he was made Duke of Windsor and became the third husband of Mrs Simpson. Although she became the Duchess of Windsor she was not styled "Her Royal Highness" and this caused him much bitterness. The Duke died on the 28th May 1972. Abroad, The Spanish Civil War started, Italy annexed Ethiopia and Germany reoccupied the Rhineland.
GEORGE VI	1936.3	House of Windsor. Second son of George V, he married Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon and they had two daughters. George VI showed great courage in accepting the role of Monarch upon his brother's abdication. He had always suffered from a stammer but with help he overcame this to a large degree, even so public speaking must have been a trial and he was fortunate to have a Queen who gave such outstanding support. In his youth he took t in the Battle of Jutland. He had a fine eye for detail and was a stickler for things to be "just so". By 1938 it became clear that war was coming and it was averted in that year only by Chamberlain signing the Munich Agreement. War was declared on 3rd September 1939 and in 1940 Chamberlain resigned. Winston Churchill provided inspirational leadership and a handful of R.A.F fighter pilots saved the country. In 1941 Russia, the U.S.A. and Japan joined the conflict, which cost a total of nearly 60,000,000 lives. Aerial bombing caused the virtual obliteration of many cities and culminated in the dropping of nuclear bombs on Japan. Germany surrendered on 8th May 1945 and Japan on the 14th August 1945. After the war the Nazi criminals were tried at Nuremberg and the United Nations was formed.There were vast social changes, industries were nationalised and a number of Commonwealth countries were made independent. George VI died suddenly on Wednesday 6th February 1952.
ELIZABETH II	1952	House of Windsor. Eldest daughter of George VI,she married Prince Philip of Greece, later the Duke of Edingburgh, and they had four children. Elizabeth II dedicated herself at an early age to serving her country, her private passion has always been horses and equestrian events. Although her reign has been without major war, hostilities have occurred notably in Korea and the Suez area in the 1950's in the Middle East and in Vietnam in the 1970's. On the 2nd April 1982 Argentina took possession of the Falkland Islands but Britain, in a remarkable response, sailed a task force to the islands and regained them by the 14th June of the same year. Her reign had opened with Winston Churchill as premier and postwar shortages were still evident, indeed rationing did not finish until 1954. Three years later the Russians launched the first earth satellite, Sputnik I, and by 1969 the Americans Armstrong and Aldrin became the first men to walk on the moon. On 1st November 1963 U.S. President Kennedy was shot by Lee Harvey Oswald in Dallas and on January 21st 1965, Britain's champion in 1940, Winston Churchill died. In 1973 Britain joined the European Community and in 1979 Margaret Thatcher was elected as the first woman Premier. Exploitation of oil fields under the North Sea aided the economy and there was a reversal of nationalisation to privatisation. International terrorism caused problems.